The Civil Rights Cases of 1883 dealt a major blow to federal civil rights protections, ruling that the 14th Amendment did not empower Congress to prohibit private racial discrimination.

This paved the way for the rise of Jim Crow laws in the South.

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Plessy v.

Ferguson (1896) infamously upheld the "separate but equal" doctrine, allowing state-sanctioned racial segregation in public facilities, a decision that would stand for over 50 years.

Brown v.

Board of Education (1954) overturned Plessy v.

Ferguson, declaring state laws establishing racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, sparking the modern civil rights movement.

Heart of Atlanta Motel v.

United States (1964) upheld the public accommodations provision of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited discrimination in hotels, motels, restaurants, and other public spaces.

Loving v.

Virginia (1967) struck down laws banning interracial marriage, a landmark decision that helped dismantle anti-miscegenation laws across the country.

Jones v.

Alfred H.

Mayer Co.

(1968) ruled that the 13th Amendment prohibited private racial discrimination in property sales, expanding federal civil rights protections.

Griggs v.

Duke Power Co.

(1971) established the "disparate impact" doctrine, allowing challenges to employment practices that appear neutral but disproportionately impact minorities.

Washington v.

Davis (1976) set a higher bar for proving intentional racial discrimination, making it more difficult to challenge facially neutral policies with discriminatory effects.

Regents of the University of California v.

Bakke (1978) allowed the consideration of race in university admissions as a factor to promote diversity, laying the groundwork for affirmative action policies.

McCleskey v.

Kemp (1987) upheld Georgia's death penalty system despite statistical evidence of racial bias, a controversial decision that faced heavy criticism.

Shelby County v.

Holder (2013) struck down a key provision of the Voting Rights Act, weakening federal oversight of state voting changes in areas with histories of discrimination.

Texas Department of Housing and Community Affairs v.

Inclusive Communities Project, Inc.

(2015) reaffirmed the use of "disparate impact" claims in housing discrimination cases.

Bostock v.

Clayton County (2020) ruled that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protects LGBTQ+ employees from discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity.

Dobbs v.

Jackson Women's Health Organization (2022) overturned Roe v.

Wade, eliminating the federal constitutional right to abortion and sparking new civil rights debates.

Meriwether v.

Hartop (2022) upheld a professor's First Amendment right to refuse to use a student's preferred pronouns, raising concerns about LGBTQ+ rights.